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Ready for C1 p 20. Past Perfect vs. Past Perfect Continuous. Extra Grammar
1. Past Perfect (had + past participle)
Use it to show that one action was completed before another past action or time.
It focuses on the result of the action.
Form:
had + V3 (past participle)
Examples:
She had finished her homework before dinner.
By the time we arrived, the movie had started.
Focus: The action is completed.
Use the Past Perfect to emphasize the result or effect
If you want to highlight the result that existed in the past because of an earlier event, use past perfect.
Examples:
She was tired because she had worked all day.
→ Focus on the result: she was tired.
The ground was wet because it had rained.
→ Focus on the effect: wet ground.
2. Past Perfect Continuous (had been + -ing)
Use it to show that an action was ongoing before another past action or time.
It focuses on the duration or continuity of the activity.
When we talk about an ongoing action, we mean an action that was happening for a period of time and did not stop immediately: in progress /ˈprəʊɡres/.
Form:
had been + verb-ing
Examples:
She had been studying for two hours when he called.
They had been waiting for 30 minutes before the train arrived.
Focus: The action was ongoing and may not be completed.
Use the Past Perfect Continuous to emphasize the cause + duration
If the ongoing nature or length of the activity explains the effect, use past perfect continuous.
Examples:
She was tired because she had been working all day.
→ Focus on the continuous activity that caused the effect.
The ground was wet because it had been raining.
→ Focus on the ongoing action that led to the effect.
Comparison Example
Situation:
You arrive at a friend’s house and she looks tired.
Past Perfect:
She had cooked dinner before I arrived.
→ The cooking was finished.
Past Perfect Continuous:
She had been cooking dinner before I arrived.
→ She was cooking for some time and is tired; emphasizes the activity/duration.
Quick Summary
Tense Structure
Past Perfect had + past participle
Focus
result/completion
Example
She had cleaned the house.
Tense Structure
Past Perfect Continuous had been + V-ing
Focus
duration/ongoing activity
Example
She had been cleaning the house for an hour.
Simple Rule
Use
Past Perfect
Focus on result/effect
E.g. She was pale because she had seen a ghost.
Past Perfect Continuous
Focus on the ongoing activity that caused the effect
E.g. She was exhausted because she had been running.
EF p 31. Learning to Speak New Language Can Slow Biological Ageing. Word Formation
Learning to speak new language can slow biological ageing, TCD (1)___________ (RESEARCH) find
People from countries where multilingualism was common were 2.17 times less likely to experience accelerated ageing
Learning to speak one or more new languages can slow biological ageing and protect the brain against age-related (2)____________ (COGNITION) decline.
So says new research reported in Nature Ageing, by scientists at Trinity College Dublin (TCD), the Basque Center On Cognition, Brain and Language in San Sebastian and the Latin American Brain Health Institute in Santiago, Chile.
“Our results provide strong evidence that multilingualism functions as a (3)_______________ (PROTECTION) factor for healthy ageing,” said Agustín Ibáñez, professor of global brain health at TCD, who co-led the research.
“The protective effect was cumulative – the more languages people spoke, the (4)______________ (GREAT) their protection against ageing-related decline,” said Prof Ibáñez.
The international team of scientists analysed data from 86,149 adults (5)___________ (AGE) 51 to 90 living in 27 European countries.
Ageing clock
A “bio-behavioural ageing clock” method was used to compare the participants’ (6)__________________ (PREDICTION) biological age, based on health, cognition, education and lifestyle factors, with their actual chronological age.
It was found that people from countries where multilingualism was common were 2.17 times less likely to experience (7)____________ (ACCELERATION) ageing compared with those living where monolingualism held sway.
This evidence indicates that language learning and its use activates and engages the brain networks related to attention, memory, decision-making and social (8)____________ (INTERACTIVE), said Prof Ibáñez.
This study improves on previous research investigating the link between multilingualism and ageing, which were limited by the use of smaller clinical samples, as well as patients that already had signs of cognitive (9)_______________ (IMPAIRED).
The analysis, in this study, of a far larger, healthy population (10)______________ (ABLE) the scientists to show the benefits of multilingualism went further than simply delaying dementia or mild cognitive impairment.
The scientists examined the (11)______________ (BEHAVIOUR) age gap – the difference between predicted biological age and actual age – between thousands of individual study participants.
They found that multilingual individuals (12)______________ (CONSISTENCY) exhibited slower ageing, even after the linguistic, social, physical and sociopolitical factors were taken into account.
“The more languages people speak, the greater their protection against ageing-related decline,” said Dr Lucia Amoruso of the Basque Centre On Cognition, Brain and Language.
“Multilingualism is an accessible, low-cost tool for promoting healthy ageing across populations, complementing other (13)______________ (MODIFY) factors such as creativity and education,” added Dr Hernán Hernández of the Latin American Brain Health Institute in Chile.
The study found no evidence that the protective effect of multilingualism depended on the language learned.
The researchers didn’t look at whether language learning by app, or its (14)______________ (CONVERSATION) use, were more protective against ageing, but they did note that social use of a new language was more likely to provide greater benefits than passive (15)____________________ (EXPOSE) or memory drills.
“Language is not just words, but a dynamic, cognitive and social activity,” said Prof Ibáñez. “Using multiple languages in daily communication requires constant switching, contextual adaptation and emotional (16)__________________ (ENGAGE) – all of which activate distributed brain systems that support attention, memory and emotion regulation.”
In light of this study’s findings, the scientists recommend that language learning be incorporated into public health plans to enhance cognitive (17)_______________ (RESILIENT) and reduce the burden of ageing.
In Ireland, it could lead to (18)______________ (NEW) efforts to promote the Irish language, not just for cultural reasons, but for its health benefits.
Adapted from The Irish Times
KEY
1. researchers
2. cognitive
3. protective
4. greater
5. aged
6. predicted
7. accelerated
8. interaction
9. impairment
10. enabled
11. behavioural
12. consistently
13. modifiable
14. conversational
15. exposure
16. engagement
17. resilience
18. renewed
Further information:
BBC Newshour minute: 17' 50''
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